Leadership models Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership models - Essay Example In this regard, the paper will endeavor to identify and analyze different characteristics of change models, and will attempt to discuss its advantages and drawbacks as well. In any organization, commitment plays a significant and decisive role in the success of any change process. However, studies indicated that organizations and business experts were unable to give importance to the notion of commitment that is an imperative component in the process. For such purpose, the identified change model has attempted to provide an illustration of the process of creation of commitment. Specifically, this model has provided three phases that are responsible for the development of commitment, and may have a significant impact on any change process in the organization (Burke, 2007). This model suggests that support is very crucial for any change, and thus, the first phase of ‘Inform’ focuses on the formation of basis for expansion of essential support. In specific, inform phase put efforts by providing awareness to individuals that is necessary for alteration in their behavior, a step that allows positive change in the organization. After some awareness, this model brings individuals and organizations into ‘Educate’ phase that involves recognition of the change and its effect that will create an environment encouraging individual decisions in the organization. Thus, advocates of this model argue that it is very imperative for employers to present a positive and efficient outcome of the change that will facilitate all the stakeholders to take their decision in favor of the change during this phase. After stages of information and education, the model has suggested the last phase of ‘commit’ that begins the implementation of change in the organization. In other words, the first two stages are the preparatory phases and the third one can be termed as executive phase (Burke, 2007). In brief, one of the advantages of this system is

Social and economic impacts on health care in present day related to Coursework

Social and economic impacts on health care in present day related to budget - Coursework Example Inadequate funds also lead to inadequate drugs to administer to their patients. A society will eventually have an inadequate health care thus leading to loss of lives to people who played vital roles in boosting the state’s GDP either directly or indirectly. Budgetary cut hinders health organization from expansion. A health institution might not be able to improve its structures or have more branches due to lack of enough funds. It also discourages innovation, since there will be no sufficient funds to support any project such as offering ambulance services to both its incoming and outgoing patients (Wang, 2006). Lastly, budgetary cut lowers morale of health workers. There will be no funds to employ new health workers despite the increasing rate of patients. It forces the old health workers to work extra hours in regardless of compensation. Health workers experience salary cut-off or even payment delays since some urgent projects needed immediate funding that took time to bring back the income (Khan & Hildreth, 2002). In summary, every state should put more emphasis on sensitive sectors that often require more funds during budgetary allocation despite the budget

PRSP as an Indicator of Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

PRSP as an Indicator of Change - Essay Example The PRSP approach has five principles--country driven, results-oriented, comprehensive, partnership-oriented, and long-term perspectives. The intention of these papers was to give developing countries the opportunity to become involved in their own poverty reduction strategies. As of 2002, an overview of the papers indicated that more monitoring was needed for the studies. Instead of being nationally derived, content across countries showed little variation, with external advice from outside sources and, in this respect, was not very different from the previous SAPs. The report called for more engagement between government and civil society. In addition, it was noted that countries were concerned primarily with stabilisation and only secondary with growth ("Overview"). Critics note that the similarities between SAPs and PRSPs show that the banks, and the countries that fund them, are still overly involved in the policy making process. It is difficult to determine the success or failure of PRSP as an instrument of significant change within the International Financial Institutions without exploring the various areas covered by PRSP as well as defining poverty as it affects the world. The Eldis Poverty Resource Guide supports analyses of poverty and related implications of social and economic policies within Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where large pockets of poverty exist. The focus of this essay will be on these three areas plus Eastern Europe to determine whether any significant change has been noted in the fight against poverty. Some areas explored by Eldis are urban poverty, rural poverty, human resources and education, as well as second generational poverty. Poverty, however, cannot be measured primarily in income or expenditure terms. It has multiple dimensions and different levels, as follows ("World Bank"): Monetary poverty - The World Bank regularly estimates poverty based on the $1 a day poverty line, converted to local currency at latest exchange rates. Income and consumption are examples of monetary indicators of poverty. Illiteracy - Lack of education as a precursor to poverty is one of the dimensions to be considered in a study of poverty. Skilled workers are more apt to be hired than unskilled workers, who have trouble finding secure employment. In a society more and more dependent on information technology, lack of education is very much a part of the poverty overview. Social exclusion - Those excluded from development and forced to live on the margins of society. When a country has been excluded for a long period of time, it is difficult to change attitudes which have led to that exclusion. Absolute poverty - This can be defined as the number of people living below a certain income level, based on a specific poverty line. Relative poverty - It measures the extent to which a household's financial resources fall below an average income threshold for the economy. Objective - Indicates people's access to different kinds of resources. Subjective - Indicates standard of living people actually enjoy. Each facet of poverty needs a different approach and, depending on type of poverty, each phase of financial assistance for individuals falls under different or multiple

The topic is forex risk management but i need to hand in the Literature review

The topic is forex risk management but i need to hand in the and backgroud chapter on monday - Literature review Example The market also does asset valuation, arbitrage, raise capital, commercial transactions and invest in bond, stock or money. Besides, all these, the market also does forex risk management (Levinson, 2005). Forex has four interdependent spot markets where currencies are traded. These are the spot market, futures market, option market and derivatives market. Most of the time, these markets are availed by key actors in direct and indirect investments, such as, exporters, importers, investors, speculators, and governments. Trading is often done at interbank markets and financial institutions although the most common currency traded is the US dollars. Exchange rates are managed either in fixed rate, semi-fixed systems, and floating rates. Forex Risk Management Forex risk management is basically protecting a foreign currency from losing value against the domestic (Levinson, 2005) â€Å"currency before an export payment is received as well as enabling markets to attach price to risk, permit ting firms and individual to trade risks until they’d hold to what they wanted to retain† (Russell, 2011). ... Investors, either individual or institutional, who are motivated to and to gain capital are assured of this market’s system of resiliency in risk management (Russell, 2011). This is further supported by the institutionalization of formal markets where investors can immediately raise capital by selling shares at the stock exchange (Russell, 2011). The foreign exchange is a huge trading market that is geographically dispersed and exchanges could either be favorable or not depending on the measures of risk management employed otherwise it can be limiting â€Å"trade lot size, hedging, trading only during certain hours or days, or knowing when to take losses†(Milton, 2011). Forex trading may seem easy, but in all honesty so difficult, indeed. Traders would either experience sudden corrections in currency exchange rates; bewildering variations in exchange rates; susceptibility to market’s rapid change for profit opportunities; lost payments; delay in the confirmation of receivables and fees; discrepancy of bank drafts received and the contract price †(Milton, 2011). Tools for Forex Risk Management How should a trader control his loses? Expert in trading currency suggested that investors should think twice to set limits on potential â€Å"pressure or drawdown† one is willing to stake in trading. They also advise make use of â€Å"correct lot sizes and to start at lower amount depending on one’s level of risk tolerance (Easy Forex, 2011). But for experts, the best rule is to utilize small account balance. They also advised tract â€Å"overall exposure† to be abreast of the developments and correlation of currency pairs (Easy Forex, 2011). Gain complete risk control and define your opportunity when the right

The Patriots Victory at Saratoga Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Patriots Victory at Saratoga - Research Paper Example The British wanted to suppress the inner rebellions in the country in order to prevent any sort of foreign intervention. Hence, The British advanced to take control over the Hudson River which was of great strategic importance. The first Battle of Saratoga is also known as the battle of freeman’s farm which took place on 19th September, 1777. This is where the British army led by Burgoyne faced part of the General Gates’ army. There was extreme exchange of gun fire and British army was in need of immediate assistance. The distressed British force was able to mark its dominance in the battlefield only when it received military assistance from the German troops. The Americans were able to retreat under the cover of night and hence the British emerged as victors. Despite their victory, the British suffered heavy casualties and more than 600 died in this battle with the Americans still blocking their way to Albany. 1 The British army waited for few days and planned out batt le strategies about the ways they could strike after they receive military aid. While the British army was waiting for the aid, the Patriots were busy in reorganizing and reinforcing their army.

The Civil Rights Movement Essay Example for Free

The Civil Rights Movement Essay The Civil Rights Movement is the most significant and eventful era in America and in African American history. The movement refers to the movements in the United States aimed at outlawing racial discrimination against African Americans and restoring voting rights in Southern states. The movement opened new economic, social and political opportunities to blacks. It had a strong effect on the way people thought and acted. The struggle was about far more than just civil rights under law; it was also about fundamental issues of freedom, respect, dignity, and economic and social equality. Significant achievements during this phase of the Civil Rights Movement were passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, that banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin in employment practices and public accommodations. Further, Martin Luther King Jr. organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Finally racial separation on the buses in Montgomery was also declared illegal. After the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 the civil rights movement, however, begun to lose momentum. The Civil Rights Movement marks a remarkable moment in history. Women’s Movement: The womens movement of the 1960s and 1970s drew inspiration from the civil rights movement. It was made up mainly of members of the middle class, and thus partook of the spirit of rebellion that affected large segments of middle-class youth in the 1960s. During the 1950s and 1960s, increasing numbers of married women entered the labor force, but in 1963 the average working woman earned only 63 percent of what a man made. Women argued that they had no outlets for expression other than finding a husband and bearing children. Women were encouraged to seek new roles and responsibilities, to seek their own personal and professional identities rather than have them defined by the outside, male-dominated society. The womens movement stagnated in the late 1970’s. Divisions arose between moderate and radical feminists and the movement failed to move beyond the middle class. Conservative opponents mounted a campaign against the Equal Rights Amendment, and it died in 1982 without gaining the approval of the 38 states needed for ratification. Oprah Winfrey: Oprah Winfrey is a popular African American television host, actress, producer, and philanthropist. Winfrey was born in 1954 in rural Mississippi to a teenage single mother and later raised in an inner-city Milwaukee neighborhood. She experienced considerable hardship during her childhood, including being raped at the age of nine and becoming pregnant at 14. At 18 Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She is known for her self-titled talk show. Her show has become the highest-rated program of its kind in history. Winfreys talk show went national in 1986, and as it had in Chicago, Oprah took the top spot almost immediately. Its been the top-rated daytime talk show ever since. There is immense power in Winfreys opinions and endorsements to influence public opinion. She certainly has a place in one of the most powerful women in the World today. The Color Purple: The Color Purple is an epistolary novel by American author Alice Walker. It received the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the National Book Award. The book has been adapted into a film and musical of the same name. The story is told in the form of diary entries and letters. The story focuses on female black life during the 1930s in the Southern United States, addressing the numerous issues including their exceedingly low position in American social culture. Celie is a poor uneducated young black woman in 1909 Georgia who, aged only fourteen, is raped and impregnated twice by a man she calls Pa. Celie goes through life having a hard time noticing the beautiful aspects and appreciating them. She had a difficult life and was abused as an adolescent. The color purple is continually equated with suffering and pain. Eventually, Celies life is complete, as the two families join as one, despite blood relations and years of separation. The novel was adapted into a film of the same name in 1985. On December 1, 2005, a musical adaptation of the novel opened at The Broadway Theatre in New York City. (www. colorpurple. com) Reference http://www.buzzle.com/articles/1960s-civil-rights-movement-in-america.html

The Material And Process Requirements In Disc Brake Engineering Essay

The Material And Process Requirements In Disc Brake Engineering Essay The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of wheel. Disc brakes can be used on all 4 wheels of vehicle, or combined with disc brakes on the front wheels and drum brakes on the rear. Before we go in detail about the material selection, I would like to discuss the disc brake operation generally to let us understand how a disc brakes able to operate well. When the brake pedal is depressed, a push rod transfers the force through a brake booster to a hydraulic master cylinder. The master cylinder converts the force into hydraulic pressure, which is then transmitted via connecting pipes and hoses to one or more pistons at each brake caliper. The pistons operate on friction pads to provide a clamping force on a rotating flat disc that is attached to the wheel hub. This clamping tries to stop the rotation of the disc, and the wheel. On non-driving wheels, the centre of the brake disc or hub contains the wheel bearings. The hub can be part of the brake disc or a separate assembly between the wheel and hub with nuts or bolts. On driving wheels, the disc is mounted onto the driving axle and may be held in place by the wheel. On front wheel drive vehicles, it can be mounted on the front hub and wheel bearing assembly. The brake caliper assembly is bolted to the vehicle axle housing or suspension. Besides that, in most cases the brake is positioned as close as possible to the wheel, but there are exceptions. Some high-performance cars use inboard disc brakes on its rear wheels. The makers claim improved vehicle handling for this design because it reduces unsprung weight. Moreover, applying brakes can absorb a lot of vehicle energy so friction between braking surfaces generates great heat. Brake parts withstand very high temperatures. Most of the friction area of a disc is exposed to air so cooling is far more rapid than for a drum brake. Unlike with drum brakes, brake fade is rare. Because of their shape, discs tend to throw off water. So after being driven through water, they operate almost immediately. Disc brakes need much higher pressures to operate than drum brakes, so almost all disc brake systems need a power brake booster to help reduce the pedal forces that are needed from the driver. Due to the high forces needed to apply a disc brake, using it as a handbrake is less common. Therefore, some vehicles build a drum brake into the centre of the rear disc to provide for park brake operation. Possible Disc Damage Modes Discs are usually damaged in one of three ways: warping scarring cracking In addition, the useful life of the discs may be greatly reduced by excessive machining. 1.2.1 Warping Warping is caused by excessive heat buildup, which softens the metal and can allow it to be disfigured. This can result in wheel shimmy during braking. The likelihood of warping can be reduced if the car is being driven down a long grade by several techniques. Use of a lower gear to obtain engine braking will reduce the brake loading. Also, operating the brakes intermittently braking to a slower than cruising speed for a brief time then coasting will allow the brakes to cool between applications. The suitability of this is of course, dependent upon traffic conditions. Riding the brakes lightly will generate a great amount of heat with little braking effect and should be avoided. The wheel shimmy during braking is caused by thickness variation of the disc. Tests have shown that high temperature does not permanently warp discs. 1.2.2 Scarring Scarring can occur if brake pads are not changed promptly, all the friction material will wear away and the caliper will be pressed against the metal backing, reducing braking power and making scratches on the disc. If not excessive, this can be repaired by machining off a layer of the discs surface. This can only be done a limited number of times as the disc has a minimum safe thickness. For this reason it is prudent to periodically inspect the brake pads for wear (this is done simply on a vehicle lift when the tires are rotated without disassembly of the components). When practical they should be replaced before the pad is completely worn. 1.2.3 Cracking Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which get small cracks around the drilled holes. These cannot be repaired. Material Requirement for Disc Brake Based on the function and the possible disc damage modes above, certain material requirement for disc brake is needed to be taking into consideration. The material requirements for disc brake are as below: High strength even at elevated temperatures High stiffness (modulus of elasticity) Low density High thermal conductivity Excellent abrasion resistance Good creep resistance 2.0 Material Selection Based on the material requirement for disc brake in section 1.3, Metal Matrix Composites has been chosen as the material for automotive disc brakes. This is because Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) is suitable to use for manufacturing automotive parts such as brake components, brake rotors for high speed trains, bicycles, and others vehicles. 2.1 Introduction to Metal Matrix Composites Metal composite materials have found application in many areas of daily life for quite some time. Often it is not realized that the application makes use of composite materials. These materials are produced in situ from the conventional production and processing of metals. Materials like cast iron with graphite or steel with high carbide content, as well as tungsten carbides, consisting of carbides and metallic binders, also belong to this group of composite materials. For many researchers the term metal matrix composites is often equated with the term light metal matrix composites (MMCs). Substantial progress in the development of light metal matrix composites has been achieved in recent decades, so that they could be introduced into the most important applications. In traffic engineering, especially in the automotive industry, MMCs have been used commercially in fiber reinforced pistons and aluminum crank cases with strengthened cylinder surfaces as well as particle-strengthened brake disks. These innovative materials open up unlimited possibilities for modern material science and development; the characteristics of MMCs can be designed into the material, custom-made, dependent on the application. From this potential, metal matrix composites fulfill all the desired conceptions of the designer. This material group becomes interesting for use as constructional and functional materials, if the property profile of conventional materials either does not reach the increased standards of specific demands, or is the solution of the problem. However, the technology of MMCs is in competition with other modern material technologies, for example powder metallurgy. The advantages of the composite materials are only realized when there is a reasonable cost performance relationship in the component production. The use of a composite material is obligatory if a special property profile can only be achieved by application of these materials. The possibility of combining various material systems (metal ceramic nonmetal) gives the opportunity for unlimited variation. The properties of these new materials are basically determined by the properties of their single components. Figure 1 shows the allocation of the composite materials into groups of various types of materials. Figure 1 Classification of the composite materials within the group of materials Although increasing development activities have led to system solutions using metal composite materials, the use of especially innovative systems, particularly in the area of light metals, has not been realized. The reason for this is insufficient process stability and reliability, combined with production and processing problems and inadequate economic efficiency. Application areas, like traffic engineering, are very cost orientated and conservative and the industry is not willing to pay additional costs for the use of such materials. For these entire reasons metal matrix composites are only at the beginning of the evolution curve of modern materials as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 Development curve of the market for modern materials Metal matrix composites can be classified in various ways. One classification is the consideration of type and contribution of reinforcement components in particle-, layer-, fiber- and penetration composite materials as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 Classification of Composite Material with Metal Matrixes Fiber composite materials can be further classified into continuous fiber composite materials (multi- and monofilament) and short fibers or, rather, whisker composite materials as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4 Three Shapes of Metal Matrix Composite Materials 2.2 Reason Selecting Metal Matrix Composites as Material for Disc Brake There are different types of Metal Matrix Composites in the world. But, not all the type of MMCs is suitable to be taken as material for disc brake. Thus, the type of Metal Matrix Composites that can be selected as material for disc brake due to its attractive material property as below: Aluminum Matrix Composites This is the widest group of Metal Matrix Composites. The matrices of Aluminum Matrix Composites are usually based on aluminum-silicon (Al-Si) alloys and on the alloys of 2xxx and 6xxx series which is very suitable to be taken as material for automobile disc brake. Moreover, Aluminum Matrix Composites able to give properties as show below: High strength even at elevated temperatures High stiffness Low density High thermal conductivity Excellent abrasion resistance Besides that, the ideal Aluminum Matrix Composites stress strain curve for continuous unidirectional fiber composites is presented in Figure 5. Generally, this curve consists of two stages. During the stage I, both fiber and matrix remain elastic, during stage II, the matrix deforms plastically and fibers remain elastic. There is possibly a stage III where both matrix and fibers deform plastically, but generally the fibers break before their plastic deformation. Figure 5 Ideal Stress-Strain Curve of a Continuous Fiber metal Matrix Composite Magnesium Matrix Composite Magnesium Matrix Composites are reinforced mainly by silicon carbide (SiC) particles (particulate composites). The material properties of Magnesium Matrix Composites are as below: Low density High stiffness High wear resistance Good strength even at elevated temperatures Good creep resistance Magnesium Matrix Composites are used for manufacturing components for racing cars, lightweight automotive brake system, and aircraft parts for: gearboxes, transmissions, compressors and engine. According to research by Z. Trojanova .P, Department of physics of Metals, Charles University, he run the experiment on Magnesium Matrix Composites to understand its material properties in a more detail way. Figure 6 True stress-strain curve It is interesting to note that the microstructure of AS41/SiC composite exhibits similar features with Mg2Si precipitates on the grain boundaries. Figure 6 shows typical true stress-true strain curve of the ZC63/SiC composite deformed at different temperatures. It can be seen that the flow stress decreases with increasing temperature. At 200-C, the work hardening is close to zero. This indicates a dynamic balance between hardening and softening. The temperature variations of the yield stress and the tensile strength max are given in Figure 7. Figure 7 Temperature dependence of the yield stress and the maximum stress 3.0 Manufacturing Process There are difference manufacturing process way to produce Metal Matrix Composites and here, I would like to focus on few processes which is more suitable to produce disc brake which made by Metal Matrix composites. 3.1 Liquid-State Processes Casting or liquid infiltration involves infiltration of a fibrous or particulate reinforcement pre-form by a liquid metal. Liquid-phase infiltration of MMCs is not straightforward, mainly because of difficulties with wetting the ceramic reinforcement by the molten metal. When the infiltration of a fiber pre-form occurs readily, reactions between the fiber and the molten metal may take place which significantly degrade the properties of the fiber. Fiber coatings applied prior to infiltration, which improve wetting and allow control of interfacial reactions, have been developed and are producing some encouraging results. In this case, however, the disadvantage is that the fiber coatings must not be exposed to air prior to infiltration because surface oxidation of the coating takes place. One liquid infiltration process involving particulate reinforcement, called the Duralcan process, has been quite successful as shown in Figure 8. Ceramic particles and ingot-grade aluminum are mixed and melted. The melt is stirred slightly above the liquidus temperature (600−700 °C). The solidified ingot may also undergo secondary processing by extrusion or rolling. The Duralcan process of making particulate composites by a liquid metal casting route involves the use of 8−12 ÃŽ ¼m particles. For particles that are much smaller (2−3 ÃŽ ¼m), the result is a very large interface region and, thus, a very viscous melt. In foundry-grade MMCs, high Si aluminum is used to prevent the formation of the brittle compound Al4C3, which is formed from the interfacial reaction between Al and SiC. Al4C3 is extremely detrimental to mechanical properties, particularly toughness and corrosion resistance. Figure 8 Casting process for particulate or short fiber MMCs Alternatively, tows of fibers can be passed through a liquid metal bath, where the individual fibers are wet by the molten metal, wiped of excess metal, and a composite wire is produced. A bundle of such wires can be consolidated by extrusion to make a composite. Another pressure less liquid metal infiltration process of making MMCs is the Primex process which can be used with certain reactive metal alloys such as Al− Mg to infiltrate ceramic pre-forms, Fig. 3. For an Al− Mg alloy, the process takes place between 750−1000 °C in a nitrogen-rich atmosphere, and typical infiltration rates are less than 25 cm/h. 3.2 Squeeze Casting or Pressure Infiltration Figure 9 Reactive liquid metal infiltration processes Squeeze casting or pressure infiltration involves forcing a liquid metal into a fibrous or particulate pre-form as shown in Figure 10. Pressure is applied until solidification is complete. By forcing the molten metal through small pores of the fibrous pre-form, this method obviates the requirement of good wet ability of the reinforcement by the molten metal. Composites fabricated with this method have the advantage of minimal reaction between the reinforcement and molten metal because of the short processing time involved. Such composites are also typically free from common casting defects such as porosity and shrinkage cavities. Infiltration of a fibrous pre-form by means of a pressurized inert gas is another variant of the liquid metal infiltration technique. The process is conducted in the controlled environment of a pressure vessel and rather high fiber volume fractions; complex shaped structures are obtainable (3, 4). Alumina fibers reinforced inter metallic matrix composites, e.g., TiAl, Ni3Al, and Fe3Al matrix materials, have also been prepared by pressure casting (5). The technique involves melting of the matrix alloy in a crucible in vacuum, while the fibrous pre-form is heated separately. The molten matrix material (at ∠¼100 °C above Tm) is poured onto the fibers and argon gas is introduced simultaneously. Argon gas pressure forces the melt, which contains additives to aid wetting of the fibers, to infiltrate the pre-form. Figure 10 Squeeze casting or pressure infiltration process 3.3 Sinter-Forging Sinter-forging is a novel and low cost deformation processing technique. In sinter-forging a powder mixture of reinforcement and matrix is cold compacted, sintered, and forged to nearly full density, Figure 11. The main advantage of this technique is that forging is conducted to produce a near-net shape material, and machining operations and material waste are minimized. The low cost, sinter-forged composites have tensile and fatigue properties that are comparable to those of materials produced by extrusion which is suitable for disc brake. Figure 11 Sinter-Forging techniques for producing near-net shape, low cost MMCs 4.0 Conclusion The early Lotus Elise models came with Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) brake discs. These brakes were lightweight and a cost effective alternative to the carbon ceramic variations available recently but the only difference is they cannot operate at the same temperatures. As conclusion, based on the research above, I am confidence to said that Metal Matrix Composites is still the best for automobile disc brake in certain situation.